Becas para estudiar en la universidad en Estados Unidos

Los estudiantes domà ©sticos (ciudadanos, residentes, indocumentados) y tambià ©n los internacionales que desean estudiar en una  Ã‚  universidades o colleges en Estados Unidos se enfrentan a grandes costos de matrà ­cula, alojamiento, libros, seguro, etc. A la hora de buscar fondos econà ³micos que paguen o ayuden a pagar por los estudios,  tener presente que la gran fuente de ayuda financiera son las propias  universidades, que ofrecen sus propios paquetes de ayuda: becas, crà ©ditos, trabajo o una combinacià ³n de esas posibilidades. De hecho, algunas de las mejores universidades de Estados Unidos -incluso Ivy League- siguen un sistema de admisià ³n need-blind que garantiza importantes becas a todos los alumnos admitidos, incluidos los internacionales con expedientes acadà ©micos sobresalientes, que es necesario convalidar o sellar con la Apostilla de la Haya, segà ºn las reglas de cada institucià ³n.. Otras universidades ofrecen paquetes financieros mà ¡s limitados, pero importantes y tambià ©n se puede buscar becas en organizaciones externas, como las siguientes. Listado de 25 organizaciones que becan a estudiantes -incluidos internacionales- en Estados Unidos AACE International Competitive Scholarship Program Para quià ©nes: estudiantes a nivel universitario, incluidos los internacionales, que centren sus estudios en Negocios, Tecnologà ­a de la Informacià ³n, Ciencias de la Computacià ³n, Ingenierà ­a y Gerencia o Construccià ³n de Edificios. AAUW International Fellowships Para quià ©nes: estudiantes internacionales que son mujeres y que estudian a nivel de maestrà ­a, doctorado u otro postgrado. El importe de las becas va desde los $18,000 a los $30,000. Annie ´s Sustainable Agriculture Foundation Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier paà ­s que realizan estudios relacionados con la agricultura sostenible en Estados Unidos. Los importes de las becas oscilan entre los $2,500 y los $10,000. AORN Foundation Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier nacionalidad que realizan estudios de enfermerà ­a de quirà ³fano o pre-operacià ³n. ASHFoundation Graduate Scholarship for International Students Para quià ©nes: estudiantes internacionales y residentes permanentes legales en Estados Unidos a nivel de maestrà ­a o doctorado que cursan estudios en Ciencias de la Comunicacià ³n y Desà ³rdenes, como es Lenguaje de Signos, Enseà ±anza a alumnos con desà ³rdenes de lenguaje. Se concede una beca anualmente por importe de $5,000. Broome Allen Scholarship Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier nacionalidad pero que està ©n estudiando en EEUU. Es un requisito para poder aplicar ser de origen sefardà ­. Està ¡ abierto a estudiantes en à ºltimo aà ±o de liceo, en college, haciendo cursos de maestrà ­a o doctorado. Charles and Lucille King Family Foundation Scholarship Para quià ©nes: Estudiantes de cualquier nacionalidad que realicen estudios de televisià ³n o produccià ³n de cine en una universidad de los Estados Unidos. Chefs4Students Para quià ©nes: estudiantes universitarios de cualqueir paà ­s que realizan en EEUU estudios de cocina, horneado, pastelerà ­a, dietà ©tica, nuticià ³n y similares. El importe de las becas es de $1,000 y se conceden cuatro anualmente. Concursos Ayn Rand Para quià ©nes: estudiantes estadounidenses y extranjeros. Para participar debe escribirse un ensayo basado en una obra de esta autora. Las becas varà ­an en su compensacià ³n. Create-A-Greeting-Card Scholarship Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier nacionalidad que estudian en una institucià ³n educativa en los Estados Unidos. Para participar para poder ganar la beca hay que crear una tarjeta con una foto o un diseà ±o grà ¡fico generado por computadora. Para presentarse el candidato ha de tener entre 14 y 35 aà ±os de edad y el premio al que se opta es una beca de $10,000. Fullbright Scholarship for International Students Para quià ©nes: estudiantes internacionales (los estadounidenses tienen su propia versià ³n). Cada aà ±o unos 4,000 estudiantes acceden a estas becas gestionadas por el Departamento de Estado. Son la crema de la crema. El proceso de seleccià ³n es riguroso y muy largo, por lo que es muy conveniente estar atento a los plazos. Earl Warren Scholarship Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier paà ­s que vayan a estudiar Derecho en los Estados Unidos. La beca es de $3,000 y premia a los candidatos que tengan un historial extraordinario de participacià ³n en asuntos de derechos civiles o interà ©s pà ºblico. Esta beca està ¡ gestionada por NÇAACP. Elie Wiesel Price in Ethics Essay Contest Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier nacionalidad enrolados en una universidad en Estados Unidos. El importe de estas becas està ¡ entre los $500 y los $5,000. Google Anita Borg Memorial Scholarship Para quià ©nes: mujeres de cualquier nacionalidad en su à ºltimo aà ±o de licenciattura o que van a iniciar cursos de maestrà ­a o doctorado en los Estados Unidos en las à ¡reas de Ingenierà ­a, Ciencias de la Computacià ³n o semejantes. Se exige una nota media en los estudios realizados de GPA 3.5. El importe de la beca es de $10,000. Google Lime Scholarship Program Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier nacionalidad con una discapacidad, que en la actualidad està ©n estudiando en una universidad de EEUU o Canadà ¡ y cuyos estudios se centran en Ciencias de la Computacià ³n, Ingenierà ­a de la Computacià ³n o similares. Se conceden anualmente 15 becas cuyos importes oscilan entre los $5,000 y los $10,000. Google Science Fair Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier paà ­s que presenten un proyecto en un à ¡rea predeterminada de Ciencias, bien individualmente o bien como miembros de un equipo. Las becas oscilan entre los $25,000 y los $50,000. Global Scholarship Alliance Para quià ©nes: estudiantes internacionales a nivel universitario, de maestrà ­a o doctorado en à ¡reas relacionadas con la enfermerà ­a. Tambià ©n brinda la oportunidad de realizar prà ¡cticas de entenamiento en las propias universidades o en instituciones mà ©dicas. HENAAC Scholars Program Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier nacionalidad pero hispanos que està ¡n estudiando para licenciarse o a nivel de maestrà ­a en Ciencias, Ingenierà ­a, Matemà ¡ticas o Tecnologà ­a (STEM, por sus siglas en inglà ©s). Se requiere calificaciones de un GPA de al menos 3.0 para aplicar. LMSA Scholarship for US Medical Students Para quià ©nes: a pesar de su nombre, esta beca està ¡ abierta a todos los estudiantes de medicina en EEUU que sirvan a la comunidad latina u otra en situacià ³n de desventaja. Microsoft Scholarship Program Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de cualquier nacionalidad en Estados Unidos (en algunas modalidades se admite tambià ©n Canadà ¡ y Mà ©xico) que realicen estudios de Ciencias de la Comunicacià ³n, Ingenierà ­a Computacional y campos semejantes. Hay que destacar que ademà ¡s del programa general de becas, Microsoft tambià ©n ofrece ayudas centradas en grupos de poblacià ³n especà ­fico para las que tambià ©n pueden aplicar los estudiantes universitarios, como son las becas para mujeres, para minorà ­as o para personas con una incapacidad. El importe de los premios varà ­a. PEO International Peace Scholarship Para quià ©nes: Mujeres estudiantes internacionales de maestrà ­a o doctorado. Se conceden hasta 200 becas de $10,000 cada una. Para recibir este premio es necesario comprometerse a regresar al paà ­s de origen tras finalizar los estudios. Point Foundation Scholarship Program Para quià ©nes: ciudadanos americanos y estudiantes internacionales enrolados en una universidad estadounidense. Los candidatos deben participar de algà ºn modo en actividades de la comunidad lesbiana, gay, bisexual o transexual (LGBT, por sus siglas en inglà ©s). El importe del premio es de $10,000. Ritchie-Jennings Memorial Scholarship Para quià ©nes: estudiantes universitarios, de maestrà ­a o doctorado cualquiera que sea su nacionalidad y sin importar la ubicacià ³n de su universidad que realicen estudios de Contabilidad, Administracià ³n de Negocios, Finanzas o Justicia Criminal. Se conceden 30 becas anualmente por importes que van desde los $1,000 a los 10,000. Society of Exploration Geophysicist Foundation Para quià ©nes: estudiantes de à ºltimo aà ±o de liceo, universitarios, de maestrà ­a o doctorado cuya finalidad es una carrera en Geofà ­sica o en un campo estrechamente relacionado. Pueden aplicar ciudadanos de cualquier paà ­s y no es necesario cursar los estudios en EEUU. El monto de las becas varà ­a grandemente pero la media es de $2,500. Women in Aerospace Foundation Para quià ©nes: mujeres de cualquier paà ­s que realizan sus estudios aeroespaciales en Estados Unidos. Se conceden anualmente dos becas por importe de $2,000 cada una. Testimonial Lee esta entrevista a Miguel Pà ©rez, quien llegà ³ a Estados Unidos como estudiante universitario con una beca y en la actualidad es residente permanente. De interà ©s Ya que se gasta mucho dinero, elegir una universidad cuyo tà ­tulo amerite el esfuerzo econà ³mico, estas son las  10 mejores universidades para estudiar ingenierà ­a. A tener en cuenta Los muchachos no conoceros de las leyes de los Estados Unidos deben de saber cuà ¡l es la edad del consentimiento sexual en cada estado. Tener relaciones sexuales consentidas con un menor de edad puede tener consecuencias legales serias.

Monroe Doctrine Essay - 1777 Words

On December 2, 1823, President James Monroe articulated his seventh annual message to Congress. This message presented Americans with a statement that changed the way the Western Hemisphere would be view and how international affairs toward the new Latin colonies would be handle from this point forward. It addressed European nations in particular and stated that â€Å"the United States would not tolerate further colonization or puppet nations† The Monroe Doctrine was initially designed to protect the Latin colonies but later President Theodore Roosevelt extended the Doctrine to include the United States would be the policing powers of the Western Hemisphere, this became known as the Roosevelt Corollary. Roosevelt stated that the United†¦show more content†¦We feel it is our duty to implement a standard of conduct for the world to follow in order for a common sense of unity and security. Often times I will here an American state that we are not the world police, b ut on the contrary we are the Western Hemisphere police. There have been many different occasions in history that the Monroe Doctrine has been exercised to settle unrest, usually ending with Marines being sent it to fortify unrest. Three of the main events that have required the U.S. to take action according to the policy are in 1904 involving the Santo Domingo, 1911 with Nicaragua and in 1911 during the Haiti crisis. The U.S. involvement in the Santo Domingo affair happened when U.S. interests were being affected by the fighting between government and rebels troops. The interests were sugar plantations that were owned by Americans that were suffering damage by the fighting forces. U.S. naval troops patrol the hostile coasts and while patrolling the Caribbean Sea the USS Yankee witnessed the fighting and decided to send soldiers ashore to make contact with the Dominicans. As soon as the soldiers left the USS Yankee they incurred firing from the rebels and a soldier was shot and killed. The young soldier was a Seaman by the name of J.C. Johnston, and was buried in SantoShow MoreRelatedThe Legacy Of The Monroe Doctrine1195 Words   |  5 PagesThe Monroe Doctrine was established by U.S. president James Monroe and the U.S. secretary of state John Quincy Adams. Their plan of the Monroe Doctrine represented a solid line where the Americans will no longer tolerate interference from European powers in any way shape or form. For the most part, America was minding its own business until Imperialism started booming in the late 1800’s. Latin America was less developed and America saw South and Central America as perfect candidates to extract resourcesRead MoreHistory Of The Monroe Doctrine Of 1823 Essay1076 Words   |  5 Pages The History of the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 Israel Cordero Central High School November 9, 2015 3rd Period â€Æ' Abstract The Monroe Doctrine had a great impact due to its strict policy towards the European powers. It wanted to keep the U.S. trade safe from European powers and colonization. Without this important doctrine/document the Europeans would have most likely colonized, interfered with, and disrupted the western hemisphere and also the trade systems connected with them. The U.S. also wouldRead MoreEvolution of the Monroe Doctrine Essay2572 Words   |  11 PagesThe Monroe Doctrine The foreign policy objectives of the United States have changed drastically throughout the nation’s history. Old ideologies and policies have been abandoned and forgotten as America’s role in the global arena has developed. However, the Monroe Doctrine is an example of American foreign policy that has remained influential since its initiation shortly after America’s conception, up to the 21st century. The focus of this paper will be to analyze the evolution of the Monroe DoctrineRead MoreRoosevelts Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine Essay1103 Words   |  5 Pagescorrupted the Monroe Doctrine’s â€Å"benevolent intent,† it is worth considering whether or not the Monroe Docterine was as benevolent as the unnamed professor seems to suggest. Professor X considers Monroe’s 1823 Doctrine an act of benevolence, in which an increasingly dominant world power generously extends protection over its continental neighbors. Yet the Professor ignores the inherently imperialistic subtext that is contained within the Doctrine, and thus his comparison of the Monroe Doctrine to theRead MoreThe Monroe Doctrine And The Modern Framework For American Domestic Affairs950 Words   |  4 PagesIntended as an annual message to Congress in 1823, President James Monroe’s speech, The Monroe Doctrine, evolved into the modern framework for American domestic affairs. Monroe’s proposed domestic policy was the President’s way of attempting to secure The United States’ newly acquired land. Not even a decade after the War of 1812 was resolved, many Americans were concerned when it came to United States’ involvement in foreign wars. This unsettlement in America was largely due to a controlling andRead More The Monroe Doctrine: Origin and Early American Foreign Policy2078 Words   |  9 PagesThe essay discusses the creation of the Monroe Doctrine and how its birth shaped U.S. foreign policy from the 1820’s thro ugh the American Civil War. It also looks at the key players and their various motives in creating this important document. The Monroe Doctrine History during the early 1800’s found the American people very interested in the situation involving the Latin American countries found in central, South America, and Mexico. Though these Latin countries tried to establish theirRead MoreMonroe Doctrine1660 Words   |  7 PagesMonroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine can be considered as the United States first major declaration to the world as a fairly new nation. The Monroe Doctrine was a statement of United States policy on the activity and rights of powers in the Western Hemisphere during the early to mid 1800s. The doctrine established the United States position in the major world affairs of the time. Around the time of the Napoleonic Wars in the 1820s, Mexico, Argentina, Chile and Colombia all gained their independenceRead MoreThe Monroe Doctrine Post Monroe Essay1310 Words   |  6 PagesThe Monroe Doctrine Post-Monroe Application after its Declaration by Monroe President John Tyler After Monroe’s proclamation (in the following decades), American lawmakers did not resort to the doctrine critical of the Great Powers of Europe in spite of their sporadic military ‘involvements’ in Latin America. The primary concern for Monroe had been making certain that European commercialism would not be re-enforced on a territory of growing economic and ideological significance to the US. HoweverRead MoreMonroe Doctrine Essay1607 Words   |  7 PagesThe Monroe Doctrine James Monroe was born in 1758 in Westmoreland County, Virginia. He attended school until the age of sixteen. He then entered the College of William and Mary (Sauer, 2000, p. 233). Monroe enlisted in the army during the Revolutionary War and at the age of eighteen he became lieutenant. He served under Washington and he was later made a captain for his efforts in the battle at Trenton, New Jersey, where he was wounded in the shoulder. From then on Monroe was active inRead MoreThe Monroe Doctrine... a Positive3129 Words   |  13 PagesThe U.S benefitted Latin America through the implementation of the Monroe Doctrine, which helped prevented further European colonization. Independence and sovereignty were in the U.S’s intentions for involvement in Latin America, while many European governments saw benefits in overturning independence and thereby acquiring resources and global power. This paper will use examples of European colonialism in, Africa, Mexico, and the Dominican Re public, to support my claim. Both the U.S and Europe had

Essay about Self Reflection Essay Example For Students

Essay about Self Reflection Essay Part 1 Introduction â€Å"A successful company is built by their successful working teams.† This is not only happening in certain company but all industry which have a strength working teams. This indicates that the working teams play a very important role in the industry to get the company keeps improving. Four generations work under one Roof! It is impossible all the employees in an industry conducted a same generation, same education level, and same working experiences or even have the same cultures. Therefore, these might appear some problems among the employees while during the working operation. This might be a challenge for the employer who has to solve the problems and turn these problems to the working effort. There are †¦show more content†¦ Conversely, the elder generation is always think that young generation is lack of experiences and egoistic. Therefore, team building may narrow their working relationship and minimize their strange distance. Experiences sharing It is also a chance for the employees to gain the working experiences or social experiences during team building. The employees may share their previous working experiences to their partner or team. It is clear that everyone has the different experiences no matter it is fun, interesting or upsetting. This is an occasion for the employees to gain the experiences from their partner which they never face or happened before. This experiences sharing is advantage to the young generation or the freshman who just start their working life. With this, the employees may get the knowledge from the experiences sharing by their working partner and they may refer this to face the problem while occur in the future. Core Value Team building is not only to improve the employee’s teamwork, but it is also to strengthen the core value of the employees to their work. Some of the employee does not ensure their situation or doubtful with their job whether the job is suitable for them or not. Many of the employees may think that they are only temporary work with this company and will transfer to other company soon. This shows that the employee who with this mind is not clear with their working .

Is Psychology A Science Essays (1720 words) - Behavioural Sciences

Is Psychology a Science? In order to answer this question it is important to understand the definitions of both psychology and science. The word 'psychology' comes from the Greek 'psyche' (or soul) and 'logos' (or study), which came to be known as the 'study of the soul'. The American Heritage Dictionary defines psychology as: 1. the science dealing with the mind and with mental and emotional processes 2. the science of human and animal behavior. In its pure definition the dictionary has provided us with a clue to the answer, it describes science as: 1. systematized knowledge derived from observation, study, etc. 2. a branch of knowledge, esp. one that systematizes facts, principles, and methods 3. skill or technique In order to prove this claim we have to look at whether or not psychology can fill this definition above. Scientific study is a valid way of coming to an understanding of life, and can be very useful in every area of life. Science develops theories based on what is observed. It examines each theory with rigorous and scrupulous tests to see if it describes reality. The scientific method works well in observing and recording physical data and in reaching conclusions which either confirm or nullify a theory. During the mid-19th century, scholars (although at that time probably termed philosophers) wanted to study human nature with the aim of applying the scientific method to observe, record, and treat human behavior that was deemed as unnatural. They believed that if people could be studied in a scientific manner, there would be a greater accuracy in understanding present behavior, in predicting future behavior, and, most controversially, in altering behavior through scientific intervention. There are many areas of psychology, each attempting to explain behavior from slightly different perspectives; Social psychology is concerned with the effects of social situations on human behavior. Personality theorists study individual behavior. Comparative psychologists study animal behaviors across the range of species Physiological psychologists are concerned with the biological basis of behavior. Developmental psychologists study principles and processes responsible for change throughout life. Cognitive psychologists investigate memory, thought, problem solving, and the psychological aspects of learning. Analysis of behavior studies the conditions under which a behavior can be learned and the situations that cause that behavior to occur. Learning is an area of psychology exploring how new behaviors are learned and maintained. Clinical psychologists study ways to help individuals and groups of individuals change their behavior. Industrial and organizational psychologists are concerned with the physical and social aspects of people's work environments as they affect work output. Community psychologists use scientific methods to study and solve social problems. As Western describes, the psychological paradigm is a collection of assumptions used to make sense of a subject area or experience, this can be applied to psychology itself. Psychology lacks one unified paradigm but has four perspectives that search for its understanding; The pyschodynamic perspective believes that behavior is a result of unconscious processes, personal motivation and early childhood experiences. It's most famous advocate was Sigmund Freud. Its method of data collection rely heavily on interpreting discussion, dreams and fantasies, actions, case studies and a limited amount of experimentation. The behaviorist perspective believes that behavior is learned and selected by environmental consequences. Its method of data collection relies heavily on experimentation conducted in the scientific laboratory where the factors studied can be controlled; or it may take place in a real life setting where more natural behavior is studied and far more variables exist. The cognitive perspective believes that behavior is a result of information processing, storage in the brain, transformation and the retrieval of information. The methods of data collection used are again experimentation but with much use of computer modeling. The evolutionary perspective believes that psychological processes echo the evolutionary processes of natural selection. Its method of data collection includes the deduction of explanations for behavior, and comparisons between species and cultures. It also involves a limited amount of experimentation. Of these four perspectives all lend common similarities to the traditional sciences. All have elements of controlled experimentation, as does physics or chemistry. Cognitive perspectives use computer modeling, as does mathematics. There are similarities, but there are also differences to any

The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Essays

The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Essays The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Paper The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Paper Human cells are the smallest structures capable of maintaining life and reproducing. They compose all living things, from single-celled plants to multibillion-celled animals. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single newly fertilized cell. Almost all human cells are microscopic in size. To give you an idea of how small a cell is, one average sized adult body, according to one estimate, consists of 100 trillion cells. The brain cells that create brain activity are called neurons. â€Å"The neuron (nerve cell) is the information-processing and information-transmitting element of the nervous system† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). The brain and spinal cord are made up of many cells, including neurons and glial cells. Neurons are cells that send and receive electro-chemical signals to and from the brain and nervous system. There are about 100 billion neurons in the brain. There are many more glial cells; they provide support functions for the neurons, and are far more numerous than neurons. Structure of Brain Cells Each of the neurons has a cell body. â€Å"The soma (cell body) contains the nucleus and much of the machinery that provides for the life processes of the cell and its shape varies considerably in different kinds of neurons† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). However, there are two kinds of fibers: axons and dendrites. Axons are â€Å"the long, thin cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). Dendrites are â€Å"a branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; receives information from the terminal buttons of other neurons† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). Each neuron has one axon along The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 4 which it sends electrical impulses to other neurons. Each neuron has a variable number of dendrites which have many branches. The axon from one neuron is attached to the dendrites of other neurons. The point at which they attach is called the synapse. The synapse is the â€Å"junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron† (Carlson, 2007 p. 30). Furthermore, dendrites bring information to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body. This is the process of thinking (Cohen, Kessler Gordon, 1988). A Map of the Brain Corpus callosum – Band of nerves between two hemispheres of the brain. Thalamus – Switching station for information going into the brain Basal ganglia – Control movement and cognitive functions Hypothalamus – Regulates sex hormones, blood pressure and body temperature Pituitary gland – Produces hormones; influences hormone production in other glands Amygdala – Regulates heartbeat; orders flight-or-flight reactions Hippocampus – Critical to long-term memory function Cerebellum – Coordinates movement How Nerve Signals Travel Carlson, (2007) states nerve signal proceeds in the following manner: 1. An electrical impulse is generated in the body of a neuron (nerve cell). The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 5 2. The impulse travels down the axon to an axon terminal (nerve ending). 3. At the axon terminal the impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitters. 4. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that enable a nerve impulse to jump across the synapse (the gap between nerve cells) at the axon terminal. 5. Once across the synapse, some neurotransmitters trigger the receiver cell; others prevent it from firing. Role of Brain in Mental Illness The belief that the mind plays an important role in physical illness goes back to the earliest days of medicine. From the time of the ancient Greeks to the beginning of the 20th century, it was generally accepted by both physician and patient that the mind can affect the course of illness, and it seemed natural to apply this concept in medical treatments of disease. Chemicals produced by immune cells signal the brain, and the brain in turn sends chemical signals to restrain the immune system. These same chemical signals also affect behavior and the response to stress. Disruption of this communication network in any way, whether inherited or through drugs, toxic substances or surgery exacerbates the diseases that these systems guard against: infectious, inflammatory, autoimmune, and associated mood disorders (Robert Sapolsky, 1998). The brain’s stress response system is activated in threatening situations. The immune system responds automatically to pathogens and foreign molecules. These two response systems are the body’s principle means for maintaining an internal steady state called homeostasis. A substantial proportion of human cellular machinery is dedicated to maintaining it. When The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 6 homeostasis is disturbed or threatened, a repertoire of molecular, cellular and behavioral responses comes into play. These responses attempt to counteract the disturbing forces in order to reestablish a steady state. They can be specific to the foreign invader or a particular stress, or they can be generalized and nonspecific when the threat to homeostasis exceeds a certain threshold. The adaptive responses may themselves turn into stressors capable of producing disease. The immune system’s job is to bar foreign pathogens from the body and to recognize and destroy those that penetrate its shield (Rubin Staddon, 1999). The immune system must also neutralize potentially dangerous toxins; facilitate repair of damaged or worn tissues, and dispose of abnormal cells. Its responses are so powerful that they require constant regulation to ensure that they are neither excessive nor indiscriminate and yet remain effective. When the immune system escapes regulation, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases or immune deficiency syndromes result. The central nervous and immune systems, however, are more similar than different in their modes of receiving, recognizing and integrating various signals and in their structural design for accomplishing these tasks. Both the central nervous system and the immune system possess â€Å"sensory† elements (Rubin Staddon, 1999), which receive information from the environment and other parts of the body; and motor elements, which carry out an appropriate response. Both systems also rely on chemical mediators for communication. Electrical signals along nerve pathways, for instance, are converted to chemical signals at the synapses between neurons. The chemical messengers produced by immune cells communicate not only with other The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 7 parts of the immune system but also with the brain and nerves (Robert Sapolsky, 1998). Chemicals released by nerve cells can act as signals to immune cells. Hormones from the body travel to the brain in the bloodstream, and the brain itself makes hormones. Indeed, the brain is perhaps the most prolific endocrine organ in the body and produces many hormones that act both on the brain and on the tissues throughout the body. A key hormone shared by the central nervous and immune systems is corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH); produced in the hypothalamus and several other brain regions, it unites the stress and immune responses (Science, 2001). The hypothalamus releases CRH into a specialized bloodstream circuit that conveys the hormone to the pituitary gland, which lies just beneath the brain. CRH causes the pituitary to release adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH into the bloodstream, which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, the best-known stress hormone. Cortisol is a steroid hormone that increases the rate and strength of heart contractions, sensitizes blood vessels to the actions of norepinephrine, an adrenaline like hormone, and affects many metabolic functions as well as actions that help the body meet a stressful situation (Gerrig Zimbardo, 2002). In addition, cortisol is a potent immunoregulator and anti-inflammatory agent. It plays a crucial role in preventing the immune system from overreacting to injuries and damaging tissues. Furthermore, cortisol inhibits the release of CRH by the hypothalamus which also keeps this component of stress response under control (Rubin Staddon, 1999). Thus, CRH and cortisol directly link the body’s brain regulated stress response and its immune response. The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 8 CRH-secreting neurons of the hypothalamus send fibers to regions in the brain stem that help to regulate the sympathetic nervous system, as well as to another brain stem area called the locus ceruleus. The sympathetic nervous system, which mobilizes the body during stress, also innervates immune organs, such as the thymus, lymph nodes and spleen, and helps to control inflammatory responses throughout the body. Stimulation of the locus ceruleus leads to behavioral arousal, fear and enhanced vigilance (Rubin Staddon, 1999). Perhaps even more important for the induction of fear related behaviors is the amygdala, where inputs from the sensory regions of the brain are charged as stressful or not. CRH-secreting neurons in the central nucleus of the amygdala send fibers to the hypothalamus, the locus ceruleus, and to other parts of the brain stem. These CRH-secreting neurons are targets of messengers released by immune cells during an immune response (Rubin Staddon, 1999). Cytokines is the more general term for biological molecules that many different kinds of cells use to communicate. Each cytokine is a distinct protein molecule, encoded by a separate gene that targets a particular cell type. A cytokine can either stimulate or inhibit a response depending on the presence of other cytokines or other stimuli and the current state of metabolic activity (Science, 2001). This flexibility allows the immune system to take the most appropriate actions to stabilize the local cellular environment arid to maintain homeostasis. Activation of the brain by cytokines from the peripheral parts of the body induces behaviors of the stress response, such as anxiety and cautious avoidance that keep an individual out of harm’s way until full healing occurs. Anyone who has experienced lethargy and excess The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 9 sleepiness during an illness will recognize this set of responses as â€Å"sickness behavior† (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, 2000). Brain and Depression Although the role of the stress response in inflammatory disease in humans is more difficult to prove, there is growing evidence that a wide variety of such diseases are associated with impairment of the HPA axis and lower levels of CRH secretion, which ultimately results in a hyperactive immune system. Furthermore, patients with a mood disorder called atypical depression also have a blunted stress response and impaired CRH function, which leads to lethargy, fatigue, increased sleep and increased eating that often results in weight gain. A deficiency of CRH could contribute to lethargy in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Injection of CRH into these patients causes a delayed and blunted ACTH secretion by the HPA axis. That same response is also seen in patients whose hypothalamus has been injured or who have a tumor (Dobbs, 2006). Also, fatigue and hyperactivity of the immune response are associated with cortisol deficiency, which occurs when CRH secretion decreases. The hormone levels and responses in patients with fatigue syndromes suggest, but do not prove, that their HPA axis functions are impaired, resulting in a decrease in CRH and cortisol secretion and an increase in immune system activity. Together these findings indicate that human illness characterized by fatigue and hyperim unity could possibly be treated by drugs that mimic CRH actions in the brain (Dobbs, 2006). The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 10 When it comes to the chemistry of the human brain, dopamine and serotonin are the reigning stars. Like other neurotransmitters, they trigger and modulate the electrical signals that nerve cells use to communicate. In comparison, the chemicals called trace amines are considered mere bit players. Now, a study reveals that people have genes that encode cell surface proteins dedicated to responding to trace amines (Kowalski, 1999). Trace amines, so named because they’re present at low concentrations in the human brain, drew considerable interest in the 1960’s. They turned out to be the key neurotransmitters in insect brains, but interest in the chemicals waned when scientists failed to find dedicated receptors in vertebrates. The low concentrations of trace amines and their rapid turnover in the brain also made them difficult to study. Meanwhile, scientists identified receptors for dopamine and serotonin, which led to the development of crucial drugs (Kowalski, 1999). The trace amines, which include tryamine, betaphenylethylamine (beta-PEA), tryptamine, and octopamine, continued to draw some attention. Studies showed that diets rich in these chemicals can elevate a person’s blood pressure and trigger Imipramines in patients taking antidepressants know as MAO inhibitors. The reason for this is that unlike axons, there are no voltage-activated ion channels in the cell membrane of dendrites, so the electrical signal cannot regenerate itself. Instead, it gets smaller and smaller as it travels from the synapse to the cell body (Kowalski, 1999). Brain and Anxiety The classic form of depression, melancholia, is actually not a state of inactivation and suppression of thought and feeling; rather it presents as an organized state of anxiety. The The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 11 anxiety of melancholia is chiefly about the self. Melancholic patients feel impoverished and defective and often express hopelessness about the prospects for their unworthy selves in either love or work. The anxious hyper-arousal of melancholic patients also manifests as a pervasive sense of vulnerability (Carver Scheier, 2000). Many studies have been conducted on patients with major depression to determine whether the excessive level of cortisol associated with depression correlates with suppressed immune responses. Some have found a correlation between hypercortisolism and immunosuppressant; other have not. Because depression can have a variety of mental and biochemical causes, only some depressed patients may be immunosuppressed (Goldstein Dekker, 2001). The excessive secretion of cortisol in melancholic patients is predominantly the result of hyper secretion of CRH, caused by a defect in or above the hypothalamus. Thus, the clinical and biochemical manifestations of melancholia reflect a generalized stress response that has escaped the usual counter regulation, remaining stuck in the on position. The effects of tricyclic antidepressant drugs on components of the stress response support the concept that melancholia is associated with a chronic stress response. In rats, regular, but not acute, administration of the tricyclic antidepressant Imipramine significantly lowers the levels of CRH precursors in the hypothalamus (Jeanette, Webster Esther, 2002). Imipramine given for two months to healthy people with normal cortisol levels causes a gradual and sustained decrease in CRH secretion and other HPA axis functions, indicating that down regulation of important The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 12 components of the stress response is an intrinsic effect of Imipramine (Goldstein Dekker, 2001). Brain and Stress Stress not only is personal but is perceived through the prism of social interactions. These interactions can either add to or lessen psychological stress and affect our hormonal responses to it, which in turn can alter immune responses. For instance, in humans, loneliness is associated with a â€Å"threat,† or adrenaline-like pattern of activation of the stress response and high blood pressure, whereas exercising is associated with a â€Å"challenge† pattern of high blood flow and cardiac output (Sternberg, 2001). Studies have shown that people exposed to chronic social stresses for more than two months have increased susceptibility to the common cold. The popular belief that stress exacerbates inflammatory illness and that relaxation or removal of stress ameliorates it may indeed have a basis in fact. The interactions of the stress and immune systems and the hormonal responses they have in common could explain how conscious attempts to tone down responsively to stress could affect immune responses. How much of the response to stress is genetically determined and how much can be consciously controlled is not known. The set point of the stress response is to some extent genetically determined (Sternberg, 2001). In addition, factors in early development, learning, and later experiences contribute to differences in stress responsiveness. An event that is physiologically highly stressful to one individual may be much less or so to another, depending on the sum of each person’s genetic tendency to hormonal reactivity and their previous The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 13 experience. In my opinion, the degree to which stress could precipitate or exacerbate disease would then depend not only on the intensity and duration of the stressful stimulus but also on the person’s ability and learned perception of the event as stressful and on the set point of the stress system. Psychological stress can affect an individual’s susceptibility to infectious diseases. The regulation of the immune system by the neuro-hormonal stress system provides a biological basis for understanding how stress might affect these diseases. Thus stress hormones released from the brain, cortisol from the adrenal glands, and nerve chemicals, such as norepinephrine and epinephrine released from nerve endings, all modify the ability of immune cells to fight infectious agents and foreign molecules (Mayer Saper, 2000). There is evidence that stress does affect human immune responses to viruses and bacteria. In studies with volunteers given a standard dose of the common cold virus rhinovirus, individuals who are simultaneously exposed to stress show more viral particles and produce more mucus than do not stressed individuals (Jeanette, Webster Esther, 2002). Stress and the Role of Social Support in Bereavement; A Theoretical Analysis According to cognitive stress theories, critical life events such as bereavement are stressful because they require major readjustments. The intensity of stress created by a life event depends on the extent to which the perceived demands of the situation tax or exceed an individual’s coping resources, given that failure to cope leads to important negative consequences. Stress theory provides the theoretical underpinning for the â€Å"buffering model,† The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 14 which suggests that high levels of social support protect the individual against the deleterious impact of stress on health (Lazarus Folkman, 1984). According to Cohen and Willis (1985), there are two ways in which social support can buffer the individual against the negative impact of the stress experience. First, support can intervene between the stressful event and a stress reaction by attenuating or preventing a stress appraisal response. Second, adequate support may intervene between the experience of stress and the onset of the pathological response by eliminating the stress reaction or by directly influencing physiological processes. Whereas these two pathways reduce the individual’s vulnerability to the impact of the stressful event, however a third way in which social support may affect individual stress response, namely, by aiding in recovery. Thus, social support may also help individuals to recover more readily from the impact of the stressful life event. The Deficit Model of Partner Loss was developed as an application to cognitive stress theory to bereavement. On the basis of the interactional definition of stress, the deficit model offers an analysis of the situational demands characteristic of widowhood and of the coping resources needed to deal with these demands. Marital bereavement marks the end of a close mutual relationship, and the loss of a partner is likely to result in a number of deficits in areas in which the spouse had previously been able to rely on the partner. The Deficit Model suggests that the loss of a partner leads to deficits in areas that can broadly be characterized as loss of instrumental support, loss of validational support, loss of emotional support, and the loss of social contact support. The Deficit Model postulates that social support alleviates the stress of The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 15 bereavement, but only to the extent to which it helps to replace the deficits created by the loss of a partner (W. Stroebe M. Stroee, 1987; K. Gergen, M. Gergen, 1980, 1982). It follows from the Deficit Model that bereaved individuals are in greater need of social support than married individuals. The model therefore predicts an interaction of social support and marital status on the level of psychological symptoms, such as the buffering effect. However, because it is unlikely that family and friends are able to alleviate completely the deficits caused by the loss of the partner, one would also expect a main effect of marital status on symptomatology. In contrast, attachment theory rejects the notion that supportive friends can compensate for the loss of an attachment figure (Bowlby, 1969; Weiss, 1975). Bowlby (1969) proposed that the attachment figure, unlike other people in the social environment, was uniquely able to foster general feelings of security and that other people could not simply take over this function. He thus goes beyond optimal matching by not only requiring a match between the characteristics of stressful events confronting the individual and the form of social support that is beneficial in this context, but by stating categorically that this type of social support can only be provided by one specific type of person (Cutrona Russell, 1990). Weiss (1975) elaborated these ideas in his relational theory of loneliness, in which he drew a fundamental distinction between emotional and social loneliness and argued that the two types of loneliness cannot compensate for each other: The loneliness of emotional isolation appears in the absence of a close emotional attachment or the reintegration of the one that had been lost. Those experiencing this form of loneliness are apt to experience a sense of utter The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 16 aloneness, whether or not the companionship of others is in fact accessible (Weiss, 1975). Thus, according to attachment theory, social support from relatives and friends cannot compensate for the major deficit caused by bereavement, namely, the loss of an attachment figure. However, social support should help with a second type of loneliness, namely, the loneliness of social isolation. Social loneliness is associated with the absence of an engaging social network, and this absence can only be remedied by access to such a network. The dominant feeling of this type of loneliness is boredom, together with feelings of marginality (Weiss, 1975). Attachment theory thus suggests that marital status and social support influence well being by distinctly different pathways, with the impact of marital status being mediated by emotional loneliness and the impact of social support by social loneliness. According to this Dual-Path Model, one would predict main effects of marital status and social support on measures of symptomatology, but no interaction. Because each of these main effects is assumed to be mediated by a different type of loneliness, one would further expect marital status to affect emotional but not social loneliness and social support to affect social but not emotional loneliness. Finally, one would expect that control for emotional loneliness should reduce or eliminate the impact of marital status on symptomatology, whereas control for social loneliness should reduce or eliminate the effect of social support on symptom levels. The two major theories of bereavement outcome thus make different and partly contradictory predictions about the role of social support in adjustment to loss. Consistent with popular beliefs about the helpfulness of social support to the bereaved, cognitive stress theory predicts a social support times a marital status interaction on symptomatology constitutes the The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 17 buffering effect, in addition to a main effect of marital status. In contrast, attachment theory predicts main effects of both marital status and social support on levels of symptoms, but no interaction. It further suggests that these two main effects on symptomatology are mediated by different types of loneliness. These predictions have not yet been addressed by empirical research. Stress and the Role of Social Support in Adjustment to Loss; A Review of the Evidence Guided by stress theory, research on the role of social support in adjustment to loss has focused exclusively on testing the buffering against the main effect model. As Cohen and Wills (1985) argued in their influential review of the literature on the social support, such tests require a factorial design that includes at least two levels of stress and two levels of social support. Furthermore, to test whether social support buffers individuals against the negative impact of the loss of a marital partner, one has to compare the impact of social support in bereaved and married samples. Buffering effects would be reflected by a statistical interaction of social support with marital status on health. In the earlier review of literature on social support and bereavement up to 1986 (W. Stroebe M. Stroebe, 1987), there were no studies found that satisfied these criteria. In the meantime, a few studies using adequate designs, comparing the impact of levels of social support in bereaved samples to that of married controls, have been published. The results are not unanimous in favor of buffering. Although some do indeed report evidence of buffering (Krause, 1986; Norris Murrell, 1990; Schwarzer, 1992), albeit using measures of social integration or received social support, other do not (Greene Feld, 1989; Murphy, 1988). The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 18 Krause (1986) studied the impact of life stresses and social support on depressive symptoms in a random sample of 351 individuals older than 65 living in Galveston, Texas. Social support was assessed with a modified version of the Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors (ISSB: Barrera, Sandler, Ramsay, 1981). Depressive symptomatology was assessed with the Center for Epidemiology Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Whereas no buffering effects occurred for the overall indicator of stressful life events, buffering was found for the numerically undefined subgroup of individuals who had been bereaved within the previous year. These buffering effects modified weak bereavement main effects. As part of a larger study of individuals aged 55 and older, Norris and Murrell (1990) obtained interviews of three samples of older adults: 45 persons who had recently lost a spouse, 40 who had lost a parent or child, and 45 who were not bereaved. Depression was assessed with the CES-D. Social support was measured with the Louisville Social Support Scale which consists of two subscales reflecting social integration, or embeddedness in a social network, and expected help. â€Å"Expected help taps the respondents more specific expectations of help in an emergency from family, friends, and community† (Norris Murrell, 1987 p. 431) and appears to reflect aspects of perceived social support. However, expected help had no impact on depression, an ameliorative effect of social embeddedness on depression was reported. The more individuals were embedded in their social networks, the less they were depressed nine months after their loss. This association between social embeddedness and depression was The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 19 stronger for the widowed sample than for a combined control group consisting of individuals who were either not bereaved or had lost a parent or child. Schwarzer (1992) studied a sample of 248 individuals about the age of 60, of which 152 had lost a family member or a friend within the previous year. Social support was defined in terms of visits by children and family members. The criterion measure in this study was anxiety, assessed with a German version of the State-Trait Personality Inventory (Schwarzer Schwarzer, 1983). When the sample was dichotomized into those who were visited at least every other week and those who received fewer visits, a clear buffering effect was observed, with loss having no impact on anxiety for individuals who received many visits but a strong impact on those who received few visits. One puzzling feature of these studies is that buffering effects were observed for measures of social support that typically do not yield buffering effects. According to Cohen and Wills (1985), buffering effects ought only to be found with measures of perceived social support but not with network measures or scales assessing received social support. In contrast, the above studies report buffering effects with measures of social network (Krause, 1986) or received social support (Norris Murrell, 1990; Schwarzer, 1992). The one study that assessed both social embeddedness and perceived social support did not find any effects for perceived social support (Norris Murrell, 1990). It is plausible that this discrepancy has something to do with the fact that the study included only elderly individuals, a subgroup for whom the needs, provisions, consequences, and perceptions of social support are very different from those of younger groups. The Role of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression 20 Two studies, both using samples of more long term bereaved, did not find buffering effects. In a follow up assessment of 49 family members and close friends of 51 adult disaster victims of the Mount Saint Helens volcano eruption conducted 3 years after the disaster, in which their mental distress was compared with that of a non-bereaved control group, there was no evidence or main or buffering effects (Murphy, 1988). Social support was measured with an index developed by scientists that assesses social embeddedness, as well as perceived social support (Coppel, 1980). Greene and Feld (1989) examined the relationship between social support and well-being in groups of 151 married women and 60 widowed women who had lost their partner within the previous five years. Respondents were drawn from a national sample of women aged 50 and older. Social support was assessed in terms of the number of social support function for which respondents mentioned one or more social supporters. Well-being was measured w

Relationship Between Deviance and Mental Illness

Relationship Between Deviance and Mental Illness Deviance and mental illness often go hand-in-hand. While not all deviants are considered mentally ill, almost all mentally ill persons are considered deviant (since mental illness isn not considered normal). When studying deviance, then, sociologists also often study mental illness. The three main theoretical frameworks of sociology regard mental illness a little differently, however they all look to the social systems in which mental illness is define, identified, and treated. Functionalists believe that by recognizing mental illness, society upholds values about conforming behavior. Symbolic interactionists see mentally ill persons not as sick, but as victims of societal reactions to their behavior. Finally, conflict theorists, combined with labeling theorists, believe that the people in a society with the fewest resources are the most likely to be labeled mentally ill. For instance, women, racial minorities, and the poor all suffer higher rates of mental illness than groups of higher social and economic status. Further, research has consistently shown that middle- and upper-class persons are more likely to receive some form of psychotherapy for their mental illness. Minorities and poorer individuals are more likely to only receive medication and physical rehabilitation, and not psychotherapy. Sociologists have two possible explanations for the link between social status and mental illness. First, some say it is the stresses of being in a low-income group, being a racial minority, or being a woman in a sexist society that contributes to higher rates of mental illness because this harsher social environment is a threat to mental health. On the other hand, others argue that the same behavior that is labeled mentally ill for some groups may be tolerated in other groups and so therefore not labeled as such. For instance, if a homeless woman were to exhibit crazy, â€Å"deranged† behavior, she would be considered mentally ill whereas if a rich woman exhibited the same behavior, she might be seen as merely eccentric or charming. Women also have higher rates of mental illness than men. Sociologists believe that this stems from the roles that women are forced to play in society. Poverty, unhappy marriages, physical and sexual abuse, the stresses of rearing children, and spending a lot of time doing housework all contribute to higher rates of mental illness for women. Giddens, A. (1991). Introduction to Sociology. New York, NY: W.W. Norton Company. Andersen, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. (2009). Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Argos of Leadership and Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Argos of Leadership and Management - Essay Example Argos is a fully owned subsidiary of Home Retail Group, UK. Argos sells general merchandise and products for household consumption from about 700 stores in UK, online and also through telephone. In the previous financial year, sale of Argos amounted to ?4.3billion and had also employed about 33,000 people across the business (Argos, 2011). Multichannel sales have grown in recent years and represents about ?1.9bn or about 46% of the total sales of Argos. Sales through internet represented about 36% of sales and the remaining 10% through in store sale or by telephone. Argos is the second largest internet retailer operating in UK comprising of about 400 m websites visit during a year (Argos-a, 2011). Argos has adopted the differentiation strategy of Porters generic strategy as the stores of Argos act as a key component of the multichannel model which provides convenient pick up points for its customers. Also with latest technology like ‘voice put away’ which enables the sto res to chose the location of the stocks and thus maximize the utilization of space available from stockroom, the multichannel retailer aims to create a competitive advantage (Argos-b, 2011, p.14). Argos faces a stiff competition from Amazon, internet retailer and has been suffering from consumer downturn and also the likes and demands for Amazon and other competitors. As compared to price, Amazon products was rated cheaper than Argos and in an online survey it was revealed that electrical of Argos was ranked 20 with customer score of 62% as compared with Amazon of 88% (The Guardian, 2012). 2. Monitor the environment Organization tends to monitor the environment by many different ways as per the convenience and requirement by the company. Most of the organization conducts market research to analyze the environment and to know the strategies that its competitors have adopted to overcome the challenges in the competitive environment. Some does it through scenario planning, benchmarking and also through industrial publications. Argos multichannel retailers use the method of benchmarking in order to monitor the environment. Scenario planning has also formed an important part of Argos while dealing with the environment. Benchmarking is an important tool as it helps organisation to gather information about its competitors and the globe, highlights the area which are in need of improvement and set performance standards (Evans, Walters & Palmer, 2002, p. 19). According to Sara Weller the Managing Director of Argos have commented that Argos has set benchmark for the model of multichannel retail and because of its strategy the multichannel retail stores has been doing well than its competitors. The retail giant continues to focus on the customers and delivery as per their requirements. The firm has benchmarked profit before tax to about 60% less at about ?102million (News Reach, 2012). With respect to scenario planning, Argos has realised that the role of physical stores are changing and thus it needs to incorporate to the change in order to stay competitive. The mostly likely scenario is that retail stores will serve two purposes, as showroom and secondly as convenient transaction point. Thus Argos plans to segment their related estates. Some of the flagship stores would focus on the function of the showrooms and